A small sample of breast tissue is removed and examined under a microscope to see if cancer is present.

When a breast has been removed (mastectomy) because of cancer or other disease, it is possible in most cases to reconstruct a breast similar to a natural breast. A breast reconstruction can be performed as part of the breast removal operation or can be performed months or years later. There are two methods of breast reconstruction: one involves using an implant; the other uses tissue taken from another part of your body. There may be medical reasons why one of these methods is more suitable for you or, in other cases, you may be given a choice. Implants A silicone sack filled with either silicone gel or saline (salt water) is inserted underneath the chest muscle and skin. Before being inserted, the skin will sometimes need to be stretched to the required breast size. This is done by placing an empty bag where the implant will finally go, and gradually filling it with saline over weeks or months. The bag is then replaced by the implant in an operation that will probably take 2-3 hours under general anaesthesia (you will sleep through it). You will probably stay in hospital for 2-5 days. Flap reconstruction A flap taken from another part of the body such as your back, stomach or buttocks, is used to reconstruct the breast. This is a more complicated operation than having an implant and may last up to 6 hours and require a 5- to 7-day stay in hospital.

The foreskin (flap of skin that covers the tip of the penis) may be removed for cultural, religious or medical reasons.

A fold of tissue (frenum) that attaches to the cheek, lips and/or tongue is surgically removed.

Haemorrhoidectomy: each haemorrhoid or pile is tied off and then cut away. Hal Rar Haemorrhoidectomy

Hiatus Hernia: Laparoscopic: several small incisions (cuts) are made in the abdomen (stomach) and a narrow tube with a tiny camera attached (laparoscope) is inserted. Small instruments are inserted through the other cuts, allowing the surgeon to push the hernia (part of the stomach and lower oesophagus that is bulging into the chest) back into position in the abdominal cavity. The hiatus (opening) in the diaphragm (a sheet of muscle between the chest and stomach) is tightened and the stomach is stitched into place. Open: an abdominal incision is made over the hernia and the hernia is pushed back into position in the abdominal cavity. The hiatus (opening in the diaphragm) is tightened and the stomach is stitched into place. Fundoplication: during the above procedures, the top part of the stomach (fundus) may be secured in position by wrapping it around the oesophagus. Inguinal Hernia: Laparoscopic: several small incisions are made in the abdomen and a narrow tube with a tiny camera attached (laparoscope) is inserted. Small instruments are inserted through the other cuts, allowing the surgeon to push the hernia (part of the intestine that is bulging through the abdominal wall) back into its original position. The weakness in the abdominal wall is repaired. Open: an abdominal incision is made and the hernia is pushed back into position. The weakness in the abdominal wall is repaired. Umbilical Hernia: An incision is made underneath the navel (tummy button) and the hernia (part of the intestine that is bulging through the abdominal wall) is pushed back into the abdominal cavity. The weakness in the abdominal wall is repaired. Incisional Hernia: Laparoscopic: several small incisions are made in the abdomen and a narrow tube with a tiny camera attached (laparoscope) is inserted. Small instruments are inserted through the other cuts, allowing the surgeon to push the hernia (part of the intestine that is bulging through the abdominal wall) back into its original position. Open: an abdominal incision is made and the hernia is pushed back into position.

A hydrocoele is a fluid-filled mass that forms in the scrotum. In many cases it will disappear by itself, but sometimes surgery is required to drain the fluid out.

Hyperhidrosis is excessive sweating that may occur over the entire body or only in certain parts, most commonly the face, underarms, palms of the hands and soles of the feet. It may also refer to severe facial blushing. This condition is caused by overactivity of the nerves that carry messages to the affected sweat glands. These nerves are part of the 'sympathetic' nervous system, which means that they are 'involuntary' or not under our conscious control. Treatment may be with medication or, for facial and palm sweating, may involve a surgical procedure known as Endoscopic Thoracic Sympathectomy (ETS). This is a minimally invasive procedure (it does not require a large incision or cut to be made) and involves interrupting the nerves that supply the sweat glands.

A long, narrow tube with a tiny camera attached (sigmoidoscope) is inserted into your anus and moved through your lower large intestine (bowel). This allows the surgeon a view of the lining of the lower large intestine (sigmoid colon). If necessary, a biopsy (small piece of tissue) may be taken for examination in the laboratory.

Shave Biopsy: the top layers of skin in the area being investigated are shaved off with a scalpel (surgical knife) for investigation under a microscope. Punch Biopsy: a small cylindrical core of tissue is taken from the area being investigated for examination under a microscope. Excision Biopsy: all of the lesion or area being investigated is cut out with a scalpel for examination under a microscope. Incision Biopsy: part of the lesion is cut out with a scalpel for examination under a microscope.

New Zealand has a very high rate of skin cancer, when compared to other countries. The most common forms of skin cancer usually appear on areas of skin that have been over-exposed to the sun. Risk factors for developing skin cancer are: prolonged exposure to the sun; people with fair skin; and possibly over-exposure to UV light from sun beds. There are three main types of skin cancers: basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and malignant melanoma. Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC): This is the most common type and is found on skin surfaces that are exposed to sun. A BCC remains localised and does not usually spread to other areas of the body. Sometimes BCCs can ulcerate and scab so it is important not to mistake it for a sore. BCCs occur more commonly on the face, back of hands and back. They appear usually as small, red lumps that don’t heal and sometimes bleed or become itchy. They have the tendency to change in size and sometimes in colour. Treatment: Often a BCC can be diagnosed just by its appearance. In other cases it will be removed totally and sent for examination and diagnosis, or a biopsy may be taken and just a sample sent for diagnosis. Removal of a BCC will require an appointment with a doctor or surgeon. It will be termed minor surgery and will require a local anaesthetic (numbing of the area) and possibly some stitches. A very small number of BCCs will require a general anaesthetic (you will sleep through the operation) for removal. Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC): This type of skin cancer also affects areas of the skin that have exposure to the sun. The most common area is the face, but an SCC can also affect other parts of the body and can spread to other parts of the body. The spreading (metastasising) can potentially be fatal if not successfully treated. A SCC usually begins as a keratosis that looks like an area of thickened scaly skin, it may then develop into a raised, hard lump which enlarges. SCCs can sometimes be painful. Often the edges are irregular and it can appear wart like, the colour can be reddish brown. Sometimes it can appear like a recurring ulcer that does not heal. All SCCs will need to be removed, because of their potential for spread. The removal and diagnosis is the same as for a BCC. Malignant Melanoma: This is the most serious form of skin cancer. It can spread to other parts of the body and people can die from this disease. A melanoma usually starts as a pigmented growth on normal skin. They often, but not always, occur on areas that have high sun exposure. In some cases, a melanoma may develop from existing pigmented moles. What to look for: an existing mole that changes colour (it may be black, dark blue or even red and white) the colour pigment may be uneven the edges of the mole/freckle may be irregular and have a spreading edge the surface of the mole/freckle may be flaky/crusted and raised sudden growth of an existing or new mole/freckle inflammation and or itchiness surrounding an existing or new mole/freckle. Treatment: It is important that any suspect moles or freckles are checked by a GP or a dermatologist. The sooner a melanoma is treated, there is less chance of it spreading. A biopsy or removal will be carried out depending on the size of the cancer. Tissue samples will be sent for examination, as this will aid in diagnosis and help determine the type of treatment required. If the melanoma has spread more surgery may be required to take more of the affected skin. Samples from lymph nodes that are near to the cancer may be tested for spread, then chemotherapy or radiotherapy may be required to treat this spread. Once a melanoma has been diagnosed, a patient may be referred to an oncologist (a doctor who specialises in cancer). A melanoma that is in the early stages can be treated more successfully and cure rates are much higher than one that has spread.

Skin conditions dealt with include lumps, tumours, cysts and other lesions of the skin and underlying tissues. These are often fairly simple conditions that can be dealt with by performing minor operations under local anaesthetic (the area of skin being treated is numbed). Often these procedures are performed as outpatient or day case procedures.

Skin lesions can be divided into two groups: Benign (non-cancerous): e.g. moles, cysts, warts, tags. These may be removed to prevent spreading (warts), stop discomfort if the lesion is being irritated by clothing/jewellery or to improve appearance. Malignant (cancerous): basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas are generally slow growing and unlikely to spread to other parts of the body. Melanoma is a serious skin cancer that can spread to other parts of the body. Urgent removal is recommended. Surgery to remove skin lesions usually involves an office or outpatient visit, local anaesthesia (the area around the scar is numbed by injecting a local anaesthetic) and stitches. You may or may not have a dressing put on the wound and it is important to keep the area dry for 24 hours. Stitches may be removed in 1-2 weeks. You may need to take a few days off work after the surgery.

Vascular ulcers are open wounds on the skin that do not heal or that keep coming back once they do heal. They occur because there is not enough blood being supplied to the skin to heal injuries that may be caused by minor trauma or pressure. Arterial or ischaemic ulcers: are usually the result of atherosclerosis or "hardening of the arteries" (a build up of fatty deposits on the inner wall of arteries). When the arteries become narrowed, the flow of blood to the tissues is reduced. These ulcers are usually found on the toes and edge of the foot and are often very painful. Treatment for arterial ulcers may involve surgery. Venous or stasis ulcers: occur when impaired blood flow in the veins causes pooling of blood in the legs. These ulcers are often associated with varicose veins. Venous ulcers are usually found on the lower leg between the knee and the ankle and the leg is often swollen and discoloured. Compression or pressure bandages are the main treatment for venous ulcers although surgery may be required in some patients.

Sclerotherapy: a tiny needle is used to inject a chemical solution into the vein that causes the vein to collapse. This approach is recommended for small varicose veins only. Vein stripping: the varicose veins are cut out and the veins that branch off them are tied off. The cuts (incisions) made in the skin are closed with sutures. Phlebectomy: small cuts (incisions) are made in the leg and the varicose veins are pulled out with a tiny hook-like instrument. The cuts are closed with tape rather than sutures and, once healed, are almost invisible.

Vascular (blood vessel) disorders treated by general surgery include varicose veins, blockages and narrowings in the arteries or abnormal swellings of the arteries (aneurysm). The most common of these conditions facing the general surgeon is varicose veins. This occurs when veins in the legs and thighs become enlarged and twisted. This is often caused by the failure of the one-way valve system in the veins, in which case it can be treated surgically by removing the segments of veins containing the malfunctioning valves as well as those veins which are significantly dilated.